Artificial meat. Food in tubes

Most laboratory methods for growing meat use animal cells derived from blood serum. Muscles are formed from the cells in the bioreactor, which becomes the basis of the meat. However, the cost of such technology did not allow the release of artificial meat on the market and the scale of production.

In 2013, biologist Mark Post of the University of Maastricht created the world's first test-tube-grown meat burger. The production of the product cost $325,000. The development of technology has repeatedly reduced this price, and today a kilogram artificial meat costs already $80, and one burger costs $11. Thus, in four years, the price has decreased by almost 30,000 times. However, scientists still have work to do. As of November 2016, half a kilo ground beef cost $3.6, that is, almost 10 times cheaper than meat from a test tube. However, scientists and creators of "meat" startups believe that through artificial meatballs and hamburgers they will be sold in stores at a reasonable price.

Israeli startup SuperMeat cultivates kosher chicken liver, the American company Clara Foods synthesizes egg whites, and Perfect Day Foods creates non-animal dairy products. Finally, Mosa Meat, the creator of the first artificial meat burger Mark Post, promises to start selling laboratory beef in the next 4-5 years.

Commercial animal husbandry causes great harm ecology. According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, it takes 2,500 liters of water to produce one hamburger, and cows are considered the main source of methane, which contributes to the greenhouse effect. Laboratory meat, even using animal cells, will significantly reduce harmful effect on the environment. One turkey can produce enough cells to produce 20 trillion nuggets.

According to Hanna Tuomisto, an agroecologist at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, beef production in laboratory conditions will reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 90% and land use by 99%. Carolyn Mattik of the University of Arizona, on the contrary, believes that artificial production will cause more harm ecology. According to her calculations, the creation in laboratories chicken meat with all the necessary nutrients would require more energy than raising chickens.

Why do we need artificial burgers - and why ordinary ones are bad

It is known that the breeding of poultry and cattle is inefficient and requires huge amount resources. To accumulate 15 grams of animal protein, a cow consumes 100 grams of vegetable protein. Gigantic territories under pastures - about 30% healthy sushi. For comparison: under cultivation plant food only 4% of useful land is allocated for a person. A lot of water is spent on processing meat: 15 thousand liters are spent per ton of chicken, and enough for one cutlet to take a shower for two weeks. The transition of humanity to artificial meat could require 70% of the energy needs of the industry, and 90% of the water and land needs.

Livestock also harms the atmosphere: animals account for 18% of all greenhouse gases per year. And all this Negative influence is only growing: over the past 40 years, meat consumption has tripled, and in the next 15 years it will grow by another 60%. This means that very soon animal husbandry simply will not be able to provide humanity with meat. Meanwhile, modern start-ups can already produce the volume of chicken that will save the lives of 1.5 million chickens (in total, 8.3 million go to slaughter in the United States per year).

What does artificial meat taste like?

It is difficult to distinguish a cultured meat cutlet from a regular one: it looks like it was made from real minced meat - it is reddish, it releases fat and sizzles in the pan. But while cooking, it smells not of meat, but of vegetables. Its texture is slightly softer than beef, it is slightly fresh, but close in taste to the real one. People who have tried the Beyond Meat Burger call it the best veggie burger they have ever eaten. While other meatless burgers are compared to tofu and.

Cultured meat is similar to thawed meat - it marinates poorly, but can be used in different dishes: in tacos, salads, soups, breakfasts. The year before last, Whole Foods accidentally packaged imitation chicken strips in natural packs, but received no complaints in weeks. So no change was noticed.

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How much does it cost

Twice the price of regular beef. Two 113-gram artificial meat patties sell for six dollars in the US. Thus, a kilogram will cost 26.6 dollars, although a kilogram regular beef costs about 15 dollars. But the cost of its production has fallen dramatically over the past two years - in 2013, scientists from the University of Maastricht cost 250,000 euros per cutlet.

Which meat is healthier: real or artificial

A cultured meat patty has as many calories as a beef patty. But on the other hand, it has more iron, sodium, potassium, calcium and vitamin C (in regular cutlets it is absent at all) and there is no harmful cholesterol. Cultured meat is not considered carcinogenic c.

Vegetarian cutlets have other disadvantages: they do not have fats, vitamins and fewer trace elements. More often, meat is replaced with soy texturate, which contains a lot of protein and trace elements, but also a lot of carbohydrates and sugars.

How it's made

In 2013, cow stem cells were taken for a high-profile experiment in growing meat. Then it took several weeks to create one cutlet. Of course, such a costly technology did not allow the production of any decent volume of the product. Therefore, scientists returned to the use of plant materials - yeast extract and protein from beans. The production technology is not complicated: in mixers, raw materials are combined with soy, fiber, coconut oil, titanium dioxide (it makes the product lighter) and other elements. Together they make up a combination of amino acids, lipids, carbohydrates, minerals and water that mimics real meat (such is the Wired process for fake chicken). The mixture is poured into extruders, similar to those used to make cheese, and heated. After that, it comes out under pressure and cools down. The warm mass smells of soy, similar to chicken breast or tofu with honeycombs.

The main difficulties in imitation meat

The taste of meat is achieved with the help of flavors, enhancers (monosodium glutamate) and spices. The reddish color comes from beetroot juice and the seeds of the annatto tree. But the most difficult thing is to reproduce its structure. Meat has fibers, layers of fat, sometimes cartilage - and all this is connected to each other. How to achieve the exact similarity is not yet clear. Artificial crab meat (it was created by the Japanese Sugiyo Co.) and chicken fillet are easier to imitate, since their structure is more uniform. But no one has yet reproduced a real piece of beef, which is why Beyond Meat sells cutlets - it is easier to recreate the structure of minced meat.

Are people ready to eat it

There are no large studies on people's attitudes towards cultured meat. In 2014, the Pew Research Center reached 1,000 Americans and found that only a fifth were willing to try it. Men agreed twice as often (27% vs. 14%), and those who graduated from college three times more often (30% vs. 10%).

A 2013 Ghent University poll had similar results: out of 180 people, a quarter agreed to try the artificial cutlet. A tenth was against it - people feared that this meat was harmful or unnutritious. But when they were explained how meat is made and what benefits it brings to the environment, the opinion changed: the share of those who agreed increased to 42%, while those who disagreed fell to 6%.

The biggest audience was last year's The Vegan Scholar blog. It shows that vegans and vegetarians are more negative about artificial meat than those who did not refuse regular beef. They wrote that any meat is junk food, admitted to being disgusted with everything that looked like meat, and believed that animals were still used for cultivation.

October 26th, 2017

I remember when I was studying at the institute, the times were quite "goold", and the scholarships were enough to go home (Belgorod-Stary Oskol) 2 times a month. So, in those days, "meat" from soy was popular. And now it’s probably on sale, I don’t notice, but then they actively bought bags with a dry mixture, which you soak, mold cutlets from it and fry - it turns out meat cutlets without meat. I liked the taste, it's cool. I'm not a big fan and connoisseur of meat.

Judging by the dynamics in the next 30-50 years, in order to feed hungry mouths, this figure will need to be doubled, since it is necessary to satisfy the appetites of developing countries where there is a population explosion. When the Chinese under Mao Zedong were building a bright future, they were getting an average of 4 kilograms of meat per person per year (about 11 grams per day). Today, each of the 1 billion 379 million inhabitants of the Celestial Empire fries, boils and stews an average of 55 kilograms of meat per year. But there is also the population of India, which, in terms of numbers, has practically overtaken the Chinese comrades. And they all dream of catching up with the consumption of delicacies in America (the Yankees consume an average of 120 kg of meat per year) or Russia (73 kilos).

However, someone on the planet will still have to tighten their belts. According to scientists, if divided fraternally, then the resources of the Earth will only be enough to produce 40 kilograms of meat for each of the 7 billion people inhabiting the Earth. But by 2060, the world's population will grow by a quarter - up to 9.5 billion!

However, for avid meat-eaters there are good news. Scientists have learned to grow meat from a test tube, which, according to taste and nutritional properties is in no way inferior to nature.

How artificial meat is made

Many developers of artificial meat are trying to anticipate the coming food crisis.

Most manufacturers prefer to grow artificial meat from animal stem cells. This is, of course, a more humane way of producing protein than the traditional meat production. But at least one animal will have to be sacrificed. Ideally, it looks like this: a cow or a pig is groomed and cherished, kept on ecologically clean pastures, and given selected feed. This is done in order to get elite and pure meat at the cellular level, then the animal is “sacrificed”. His stem cells will become the material for growing hundreds of tons muscle mass in special bioreactors. The cells will be placed in a warm nutrient solution, where they will multiply very quickly until they turn into some kind of lumps of minced meat.

Technologies of different companies differ only in nuances. For example, the American company Memphis Meats creates duck and chicken meat in bioreactors, cultivating cells from the embryonic serum of chicks. Israeli startup SuperMeat bet on cultivation chicken liver. By the way, SuperMeat, along with two other Israeli laboratories, received a serious contract from the Chinese government. The authorities of the Celestial Empire "tasted" the developments of biochemists so much that they invested 300 million in the development of Israeli technologies for the production of artificial meat. But 300 million is still flowers.

The winners of the "meat" race will cut a prize of 729 billion dollars - this amount is estimated by the volume of the world market for meat production. But all the creators of pork, chicken and other “Frankensteins” are faced with one unappetizing problem. Protein food, which is obtained at the exit, tastes very vaguely reminiscent of natural meat. The fact is that, although the same conditions are simulated in bioreactors as inside the body of a living being, cultured meat turns out to be porous and elastic.

The problem seems to have been solved by a startup called Impossible Foods, which has achieved the greatest authenticity in terms of taste parameters. This is especially surprising, given that they create their "beef" not from animal cells, but from plant materials. But the founder of the company, professor of biochemistry Patrick Brown, reasoned as follows: real meat is very difficult to grow from cells, because it is a very complex tissue. It is made up of tens of thousands of muscle fibers blood vessels, nerves, layers of fatty and connective tissues. It is much easier to decompose this complex matter into chemical elements and then try to put it together from raw materials. plant origin. Big people believed in the project: among the investors are the richest man on the planet Bill Gates and the wealthiest businessman in Asia, Hong Kong businessman Li Ka-shing. Biochemists at Impossible Foods spent 5 years and $80 million trying to break down the taste of beef into molecules. They studied why raw meat is almost tasteless, but as soon as you throw it into a frying pan, the kitchen immediately fills with tempting aromas. Why does a piece of veal sizzle in a frying pan. Why does it change color after heat treatment. What substances produce a signature smell.

As a result, it turned out that key component that gives meat flavor and texture are gems. These compounds are part of hemoglobin. Hemes contain an iron atom, and thanks to this, the blood is able to be saturated with oxygen. Muscle fibers are especially rich in these compounds. This is a kind of building blocks from which a living organism is built. Hemes are found not only in living organisms, but also in plants. For example, in soy. True, the percentage of hemes in plant tissues is thousands of times less than in animal tissues. However, biochemists have found a fairly cheap way to synthesize " secret ingredient» from soy. This plant contains leghemoglobin - complex proteins that also have the ability to bind oxygen and have a great structural similarity to hemoglobin. Scientists attribute this to a common evolutionary origin. The problem was that to produce the amount of heme that is contained in one kilogram of muscle tissue, so much soy is needed that production does not fit into the profitability framework.

However, Patrick Brown and his colleagues managed to cope with this problem by borrowing a solution from the brewers. They used the same fermentation process that produces the divine foamy drink. The genes responsible for the production of leghemoglobin in soybeans were “planted” with the Pichia pastoris yeast strain, which is used in biotechnology for protein synthesis. The resulting mass was fed with a nutrient solution and at the output heme was obtained already in industrial volumes.

In addition, they reconstructed the smell of meat using vegetable analogues.

- Making the right smell is not difficult at all, you just need to know in what proportions to mix chemical substances, of which it is composed, - says Stacy Simonich, a chemist at the University of Oregon.

Food of the future: already on sale

Since 2016, artificial beef has begun its triumphal march through American catering establishments. You can try it in New York, Las Vegas, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Texas. Earlier this year, Impossible Foods opened a laboratory to produce its "beef" in industrial scale. The enterprise is capable of synthesizing 454,000 kg of artificial meat per month. According to Patrick Brown, this is enough to supply 1,000 restaurants with artificial burgers. He is sure that there will be no end to those who want to try the curiosity. According to gourmets, the only difference is that Impossible Foods burgers cost $12 — twice as much as regular ones.

How to make people who are of sound mind and solid memory pay twice as much for a burger? The system of manufacturers' arguments looks quite harmonious. They appeal to the brightest human feelings.

— Buying a hamburger made of synthetic protein, a person is doing a noble deed — he is helping society! says Patrick Brown, a molecular biologist. - To create a kilogram of meat, we need 20 times less farmland and 4 times less less water. At the same time, greenhouse gas emissions are reduced by 8 times.

How cows spoil the air

- It would seem, what do cows have to do with global climate change. But scientists have calculated: every day a cow eats about 15-20 kilograms of grass.

– During the processing of this green mass digestive system An animal emits 500 liters of methane daily.

“In general, the meat industry emits 18 percent of the greenhouse gases produced by mankind into the atmosphere. Approximately the same pollutes the air and road transport.

Consciousness is also under pressure from another pioneer of the movement, the Dutch biochemist Mark Post of the University of Maastricht. It was he who in 2013 presented to the public the world's first cutlet grown from animal stem cells.

— I think that in 25 years governments will force producers traditional meat pay an environmental tax, says the Dutch professor. “The same thing is happening in the automotive industry. For example, Germany announced a ban on the production of cars with internal combustion engines from 2030. This clears the way for more environmentally friendly electric vehicles. I think today's children will live to see the day when it will be forbidden to raise animals for slaughter. It will happen in 50-60 years. But already now, traditional meat can be sold with an inscription on the packaging: "In the production of this product, an animal suffered and was killed."

What else alternative ways food production is developing in the world

protein from bacteria

This method was invented by Finnish scientists from the Lappeenranta University of Technology and the VTT Technical Research Center. It is based on the cultivation of special hydrogen bacteria in a biological reactor. These are microorganisms that use carbon as a building material for cells. It is full of it in the atmospheric carbon dioxide. To assimilate carbon, hydrogen bacteria need an energy source - molecular hydrogen (it is no coincidence that they were named after this chemical element). But he is no longer lying on the road. But it is formed in a bioreactor, where water, under the influence of electricity, decomposes into oxygen and hydrogen, so beloved by these bacteria. As a result, the cell mass begins to grow and the apparatus forms nutrient broth. Then the solution is filtered, dried and served as a white powder.

BY THE WAY

Without knowing it, each person eats an average of 5 kilograms of insects in his life, entomologist Oleg Borodin, assistant professor of the Department of Zoology at the Faculty of Biology of the Belarusian State University, calculated. Larvae, aphids, beetles and worms enter our body mainly along with fruits and vegetables.

Would you like a Shitburger?

This smelly scientific topic was taken up by the Japanese scientist Mitsuyuki Ikeda from the Okayama laboratory. He succeeded in synthesizing meat from human waste. Initially commissioned by a Tokyo sewer company, he studied the problems of urban waste management. In the course of research, Ikeda discovered bacteria in sewer sludge that processed excrement into protein. Ikeda isolated pure protein from the brown mass, seasoned with dyes, flavorings and received from the "secondary product", sung by Vladimir Voinovich, another type of artificial meat. The Japanese called it a Shitburger. Here it is the nutritional value: 63% protein, 25% carbohydrates, 3% fat & 9% minerals.

Did you know that at one time you were actively developing

Incredible Facts

Dutch scientists have used stem cells to create muscle fibers to produce the world's first lab-grown hamburger. The study is scheduled to be completed by the end of this year. Scientists want to develop more efficient ways to produce meat without having to raise animals on farms.

At a meeting in Canada, Professor Mark Post reported that farmed meat can reduce the amount of harmful emissions into the environment by 60 percent, compared with modern livestock production.

Professor Post's team from University of Maastricht, Holland, has grown small pieces of muscle 2 centimeters long, 1 centimeter wide and 1 millimeter thick. They are white in color and similar in appearance to squid meat. The fibers will be mixed with blood and artificially grown fat in order to make a full faux hamburger by the fall.

The cost of such a hamburger eventually amounted to 200 thousand pounds, but Professor Post said that as soon as the principle of growing meat in artificial conditions will be demonstrated, production techniques can be improved, and the price of such a product will fall significantly.

Post said that once the experiment was completed, he would ask celebrity chef Heston Blumenthal make a hamburger out of this meat. At first, this meat will be tasteless, but scientists still need to work on its palatability.

Scientists reported that the reason for creating the first artificial meat was not to show a viable product, but to show that it was possible to create it. They still have a lot of work to do to make the process of creating such products efficient and cheap.

Why did they have to use such complex methods to create meat when the animal industry has been producing a natural product for many thousands of years? The main reason is that most food scientists believe that modern methods- non-environmental.

According to some estimates, food production will double in 50 years in order to meet the needs of a growing population. During this period, in the face of climate change, shortages fresh water and the growth of cities, it will become more and more difficult to produce food.

Scientists believe that meeting the demand for meat in Asia and Africa will be especially difficult, as the demand for these products will increase in the face of rising living standards in these regions. They are confident that lab-created meat will be the perfect way out.

"This will reduce the shortage of land resources the scientists said. - Anything that can stop the agricultural sector from taking over wild areas would be great. We have already reached a critical point in the use of arable land."

Meat production in the lab will eventually become more efficient than conventional meat production, Professor Post said. Currently, 100 grams of vegetable protein fed to pigs and cows only goes to 15 grams of animal protein, which is only 15 percent effective. Scientists believe that synthetic meat can be produced with an efficiency of 50 percent, given the equivalent of energy resources.

But what would the faux burger taste like?

"In the beginning this meat will be tasteless Post said. - We need to isolate the components that give the meat a special taste and analyze the composition of the fiber in order to make appropriate changes."

Professor Post also reported that new technology will reduce the number of animals that are kept on farms and then killed. Of course, the same numbers can be obtained if people began to eat less meat, but so far this is not possible. Scientists are also concerned that very unhealthy levels of antibiotics and antifungal chemicals will be needed for the synthetic meat to keep well.

Synthetic and artificial foods

food products, as a rule, of high protein value, created by new technological methods based on individual nutrients (proteins or their constituent amino acids, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, microelements, etc.); in appearance, taste and smell, they usually imitate natural food products.

Synthetic food products (SPP) are products derived from chemically synthesized food substances. Modern synthetic organic chemistry, in principle, makes it possible to synthesize any food substances from individual chemical elements, however, the complexity of the synthesis of high-molecular compounds, which include food biopolymers, especially proteins (See Proteins) and polysaccharides (See Polysaccharides) (starch, fiber), makes production SPP at the present stage is not economically feasible. Therefore, while from the products of chemical synthesis in nutrition, low molecular weight Vitamins and Amino acids are used. Synthetic amino acids and their mixtures are used as additives to natural food products to increase their protein value, as well as in clinical nutrition(including for intravenous administration to patients whose normal nutrition is difficult or impossible).

The global shortage of high-grade dietary protein(containing all the essential, i.e., not synthesized by the body, amino acids), affecting 3/4 of the world's population, poses an urgent task for humanity to find rich, affordable and cheap sources of complete protein to enrich natural and create new, so-called. artificial, protein products. Artificial food products (IPP) - products rich in complete protein, obtained on the basis of natural nutrients by preparing a mixture of solutions or dispersions of these substances with food gelling agents and giving them a certain structure (structuring) and specific forms. food products. Nowadays, for the production of IPP, proteins are used from two main sources: proteins isolated from non-traditional natural food raw materials, the reserves of which are quite large in the world - vegetable (soybeans, peanuts, sunflower seeds, cotton, sesame, rapeseed, as well as cake and meal from seeds of these crops, peas, wheat gluten, green leaves and other green parts of plants) and animals (milk casein, low-value fish, Krill and other organisms of the sea); proteins synthesized by microorganisms, in particular by various types of yeast (See Yeast). The exceptional rate of protein synthesis by yeast (see Microbiological Synthesis) and their ability to grow on both food (sugar, wort, cake) and non-food (petroleum hydrocarbons) media make yeast a promising and practically inexhaustible source of protein for the production of IPP by factory methods. However, the widespread use of microbiological raw materials for food production requires the creation effective methods production and processing of highly purified proteins and thorough biomedical research. In this regard, the protein of yeast grown on agricultural waste and oil hydrocarbons is used mainly in the form of fodder yeast (See Feed yeast) , for top dressing with. - x. animals.

Ideas about obtaining SPP from individual chemical elements and PPP from lower organisms were expressed as early as the end of the 19th century. D. I. Mendeleev and one of the founders of synthetic chemistry P. E. M. Bertlo . However, their practical implementation became possible only at the beginning of the second half of the 20th century. as a result of advances in molecular biology, biochemistry, physical and colloidal chemistry, physics, as well as the technology of processing fiber-forming and film-forming polymers (See Polymers) and development of high-precision physical and chemical methods for the analysis of multicomponent mixtures organic compounds(gas-liquid and other types of chromatography, spectroscopy, etc.).

In the USSR, extensive research on the problem of protein PPIs began in the 1960s and 1970s. on the initiative of Academician A.N. Nesmeyanov, at the Institute of Organoelement Compounds (INEOS) of the USSR Academy of Sciences, they developed in three main directions: the development of cost-effective methods for obtaining isolated proteins, as well as individual amino acids and their mixtures from plant, animal, and microbial raw materials; creation of structuring methods from proteins and their complexes with IPP polysaccharides, imitating the structure and appearance of traditional food products; study of natural food odors and artificial recreation of their compositions.

The developed methods for obtaining purified proteins and mixtures of amino acids turned out to be universal for all types of raw materials: mechanical or chemical destruction of the cell membrane and extraction by fractional dissolution and precipitation of the entire protein and other cellular components (polysaccharides, nucleic acids, lipids together with vitamins) by appropriate precipitants; cleavage of proteins by enzymatic or acidic hydrolysis and obtaining in the hydrolyzate a mixture of amino acids purified by ion-exchange chromatography, etc. Structuring studies made it possible to artificially obtain, on the basis of proteins and their complexes with polysaccharides, all the main structural elements of natural food products (fibers, membranes and spatial swelling networks of macromolecules) and to develop methods for the preparation of many PPIs ( granular caviar, meat-like products, artificial potato products, pasta and cereals). So, protein granular caviar is prepared on the basis of high-value milk protein casein, water solution which is introduced together with a structure-forming agent (for example, gelatin) into chilled vegetable oil, as a result of which "eggs" are formed. After separating from the oil, the eggs are washed, tanned with tea extract to obtain an elastic shell, dyed, then treated in solutions of acidic polysaccharides to form a second shell, salt is added, a composition of substances that provide taste and smell, and a delicacy is obtained. protein product, almost indistinguishable from natural granular caviar. Artificial meat suitable for all kinds cooking, obtained by extrusion (forcing through forming devices) and wet spinning of the protein to turn it into fibers, which are then collected into bundles, washed, impregnated with a gluing mass (jelly former), pressed and cut into pieces. Fried potatoes, vermicelli, rice, egg and other non-meat products are obtained from mixtures of proteins with natural nutrients and gelling agents (alginates, pectins, starch). Not inferior in organoleptic properties to the corresponding natural products, these PPIs are 5-10 times higher in protein content and have improved technological qualities. Odors at modern technology are studied by gas-liquid chromatography methods and artificially recreated from the same components as in natural food products.

Research in the field of problems associated with the creation of SPP and IPP in the USSR is being conducted at the INEOS of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR together with the Institute of Nutrition of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, the Moscow Institute of National Economy. G. V. Plekhanov, Research Institute Catering Ministry of Trade of the USSR, the All-Union Scientific Research and Experimental Design Institute of Food Engineering, the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography, etc. Methods of industrial IPP technology are being developed to introduce laboratory samples into industrial production.

Abroad, the first patents for the production of artificial meat and meat-like products from isolated soy, peanut and casein proteins were obtained in the USA by Anson, Peder and Boer in 1956-63. In subsequent years, a new industry emerged in the USA, Japan, Great Britain, producing a wide variety of IPPs (fried, aspic, ground and other meats). different types, meat broths, cutlets, sausages, sausages and other meat products, bread, pasta and cereals, milk, cream, cheeses, sweets, berries, drinks, ice cream, etc.). In the United States, which accounts for almost 75% of the world's soybean production, the production of soy protein-based PPIs reaches hundreds of thousands of tons. T. In Japan and the UK, plant proteins are mainly used for the production of PPIs (in the UK, experiments have begun on the production of artificial milk and cheeses from green leaves plants). Industrial production of IPP is being mastered by other countries. According to foreign statistics, by 1980-90 the production of IPP in economically developed countries will amount to 10-25% of the production of traditional food products.

Lit.: Mendeleev D. I., Works on agriculture and forestry, M., 1954; Nesmeyanov A. N. [and others], Artificial and synthetic food, Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1969, No. 1; Nutrition for an Increasing World Population: Recommendations Concerning International Measures to Avert the Threat of Protein Deficiency, New York, 1968 (UN. Economic and Social Council. E 4343); Food: readings from scientific American, S.F., 1973; world protein resources. Wash., 1966.

S. V. Rogozhin.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

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