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Taking advantage of the fact that after the devastation of North-Eastern Rus' by the Mongols, Novgorod and Pskov had nowhere to wait for help, the Swedish and German knights intensified their expansion in North-Western Rus', counting on an easy victory. The Swedes were the first to attempt to seize Russian lands. In 1238, the Swedish king Erich Burr received permission (“blessing”) from the Pope for a crusade against the Novgorodians. Everyone who agreed to take part in the campaign was promised absolution.
In 1239, the Swedes and Germans negotiated, outlining a campaign plan: the Swedes, who had by that time captured Finland, were to attack Novgorod from the north, from the Neva River, and the Germans - through Izborsk and Pskov. Sweden allocated an army for the campaign under the leadership of Jarl (Prince) Ulf Fasi and the king's son-in-law, Earl Birger, the future founder of Stockholm.
The Novgorodians knew about the plans of the Swedes, as well as the fact that the Swedes were going to baptize them, like pagans, into the Catholic faith. Therefore, the Swedes, who went to instill an alien faith, seemed to them more terrible than the Mongols.
In the summer of 1240, the Swedish army under the command of Birger, “in great strength, puffing with a military spirit,” appeared on the Neva River on ships that stood at the mouth of the Izhora River. The army consisted of Swedes, Norwegians, and representatives of Finnish tribes, who intended to go straight to Ladoga and from there descend to Novgorod. There were also Catholic bishops in the army of the conquerors. They walked with a cross in one hand and a sword in the other. Having landed on the shore, the Swedes and their allies pitched their tents and tents at the confluence of the Izhora and the Neva. Birger, confident of his victory, sent to Prince Alexander with the statement: “If you can resist me, then I am already here, fighting your land.”
The Novgorod borders at that time were guarded by "watchmen". They were also located on the sea coast, where local tribes served. So, in the Neva area, on both banks of the Gulf of Finland, there was a “sea guard” of the Izhorians, guarding the routes to Novgorod from the sea. The Izhorians had already converted to Orthodoxy and were an ally of Novgorod. One day at dawn of a July day in 1240, the elder of the Izho land Pelgusius, while on patrol, discovered a Swedish flotilla and hastily sent to report everything to Alexander.
Having received news of the enemy's appearance, the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavovich decided to suddenly attack him. There was no time to gather troops, and convening a veche (national assembly) could delay the matter and lead to the disruption of the surprise of the impending operation. Therefore, Alexander did not wait for the squads sent by his father Yaroslav to arrive, or for the warriors from the Novgorod lands to gather. He decided to oppose the Swedes with his squad, strengthening it only with Novgorod volunteers. According to ancient custom, they gathered at the Cathedral of St. Sophia, prayed, received a blessing from their ruler Spyridon and set out on a campaign. They walked along the Volkhov River to Ladoga, where Alexander was joined by a detachment of Ladoga residents, allies of Veliky Novgorod. From Ladoga, Alexander's army turned to the mouth of the Izhora River.
The Swedish camp, set up at the mouth of the Izhora, was not guarded, since the Swedes did not suspect the approach of Russian troops. The enemy ships rocked, tied to the shore; all along the coast there were white tents, and between them was the golden-topped tent of Birger. On July 15 at 11 a.m. the Novgorodians suddenly attacked the Swedes. Their attack was so unexpected that the Swedes did not have time to “gird their swords around their loins.”
Birger's army was taken by surprise. Deprived of the opportunity to form up for battle, it could not provide organized resistance. With a bold onslaught, the Russian squad passed through the enemy camp and drove the Swedes to the shore. The foot militia, moving along the bank of the Neva, not only cut down the bridges connecting the Swedish ships to land, but even captured and destroyed three enemy ships.
The Novgorodians fought "in the rage of their courage." Alexander personally “beat up countless countless Swedes and put a seal on the face of the king himself with your sharp sword.” The prince's henchman, Gavrilo Oleksich, chased Birger all the way to the ship, rushed onto the Swedish boat on horseback, was thrown into the water, remained alive and again entered the battle, killing on the spot the bishop and another noble Swede named Spiridon. Another Novgorodian, Sbyslav Yakunovich, with only an ax in his hand, boldly crashed into the very thick of the enemies, mowed them down right and left, clearing the way, as if in a thicket. Behind him, the princely hunter Yakov Polochanin was waving his long sword. These fellows were followed by other warriors. The princely youth Savva, having made his way to the center of the enemy camp, cut down the high pillar of Birger’s own tent: the tent fell down. A detachment of Novgorod volunteers sank three Swedish ships. The remnants of Birger's defeated army fled on surviving ships. The losses of the Novgorodians were insignificant, amounting to 20 people, while the Swedes loaded three ships with the bodies of only noble people, and left the rest on the shore.
The victory over the Swedes was of great political significance. She showed all the Russian people that they had not yet lost their former valor and could stand up for themselves. The Swedes failed to cut off Novgorod from the sea and capture the coast of the Neva and the Gulf of Finland. Having repelled the Swedish attack from the north, the Russian army disrupted the possible interaction of the Swedish and German conquerors. To combat German aggression, the right flank and rear of the Pskov theater of military operations are now reliably secured.
In tactical terms, it is worth noting the role of the “watchman,” who discovered the enemy and promptly informed Alexander about his appearance. The factor of surprise was important in the attack on Birger's camp, whose army was taken by surprise and could not provide organized resistance. The chronicler noted the extraordinary courage of Russian soldiers. For this victory, Prince Alexander Yaroslavich was called “Nevsky”. At that time he was only twenty-one years old.
Battle of Lake Peipus ("Battle of the Ice") in 1242.
In the summer of 1240, German knights from the Livonian Order, created from the Orders of the Sword and Teutonic, invaded the Novgorod land. Back in 1237, Pope Gregory IX blessed the German knights to conquer the indigenous Russian lands. The army of the conquerors consisted of Germans, bears, Yuryevites and Danish knights from Revel. With them was a traitor - the Russian prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich. They appeared under the walls of Izborsk and took the city by storm. The Pskovites rushed to the aid of their fellow countrymen, but their militia was defeated. Over 800 people were killed alone, including the governor Gavrila Gorislavich.
Following in the footsteps of those who fled, the Germans approached Pskov, crossed the Velikaya River, set up their camp under the very walls of the Kremlin, set fire to the city and began to destroy churches and surrounding villages. For a whole week they kept the Kremlin under siege, preparing for the assault. But it didn’t come to that: Pskov resident Tverdilo Ivanovich surrendered the city. The knights took hostages and left their garrison in Pskov.
The Germans' appetite increased. They have already said: “We will reproach the Slovenian language ... to ourselves,” that is, we will subjugate the Russian people to ourselves. In the winter of 1240-1241, the knights again appeared as uninvited guests in the Novgorod land. This time they captured the territory of the Vod (vozhan) tribe, east of the Narva River, "waging everything and placing tribute on them." Having captured the “Vodskaya Pyatina”, the knights took possession of Tesov (on the Oredezh River), and their patrols appeared 35 km from Novgorod. Thus, a vast territory in the region of Izborsk - Pskov - Sabel - Tesov - Koporye was in the hands of the Livonian Order.
The Germans already considered the Russian border lands to be their property; the pope “transferred” the coast of the Neva and Karelia under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Ezel, who entered into an agreement with the knights: he agreed for himself a tenth of everything that the land gives, and left everything else - fishing, mowing, arable land - to the knights.
Novgorodians again remembered Prince Alexander, already Nevsky, who left after a quarrel with the city boyars for his native Pereslavl-Zalessky. The Metropolitan of Novgorod himself went to ask the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich to release his son, and Yaroslav, realizing the danger of the threat emanating from the West, agreed: the matter concerned not only Novgorod, but all of Rus'.
Alexander organized an army of Novgorodians, Ladoga residents, Karelians and Izhorians. First of all, it was necessary to decide the question of the method of action.
In 1241, the army under the command of Alexander set out on a campaign, reached Koporye, took possession of the fortress, and tore the hail from the foundations, and beat the Germans themselves, and brought others with them to Novgorod, and released others with mercy, for he was more merciful than measure, and the leaders and chudtsev perevetniks (i.e. traitors) was hanged (hanged).” Vodskaya Pyatina was cleared of Germans. The right flank and rear of the Novgorod army were now safe.
In March 1242, the Novgorodians set out on a campaign again and were soon near Pskov. Alexander, believing that he did not have enough strength to attack a strong fortress, was waiting for his brother Andrei Yaroslavich with the Suzdal squads, who soon arrived. The Order did not have time to send reinforcements to its knights. Pskov was surrounded, and the knightly garrison was captured. Alexander sent the order's governors in chains to Novgorod. 70 noble order brothers and many ordinary knights were killed in the battle.
After this defeat, the Order began to concentrate its forces within the Dorpat bishopric, preparing an offensive against the Russians. The Order gathered great strength: almost all its knights were here, with the master at their head, with all the bishops, a large number of local warriors, as well as warriors of the Swedish king.
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Alexander decided to transfer the war to the territory of the Order itself. The Russian army marched to Izborsk. Prince Alexander Nevsky sent forward several reconnaissance detachments. One of them, under the command of the mayor's brother Domash Tverdislavich and Kerbet, came across German knights and Chud (Ests), was defeated and retreated; Domash died in the process. Meanwhile, intelligence found out that the enemy sent insignificant forces to Izborsk, and his main forces were moving towards Lake Peipsi.
The Novgorod army turned towards the lake, “and the Germans walked on them like crazy.” The Novgorodians tried to repel the outflanking maneuver of the German knights. Having reached Lake Peipus, the Novgorod army found itself in the center of possible enemy routes to Novgorod. Now Alexander decided to give battle and stopped on Lake Peipsi north of the Uzmen tract, near the island of Voroniy Kamen. The forces of the Novgorodians were little more than the knightly army. According to various available data, we can conclude that the army of German knights amounted to 10-12 thousand, and the Novgorod army - 15-17 thousand people. According to L.N. Gumilyov, the number of knights was small - only a few dozen; they were supported by foot mercenaries armed with spears and the Order's allies, the Livs.
At dawn on April 5, 1242, the knights formed a “wedge” or “pig”. The wedge consisted of armored horsemen and its task was to crush and break through the central part of the enemy troops, and the columns following the wedge were supposed to defeat the enemy’s flanks. In chain mail and helmets, with long swords, they seemed invulnerable. Alexander Nevsky contrasted this stereotypical tactics of the knights, with the help of which they won many victories, with a new formation of Russian troops, directly opposite to the traditional Russian system. Alexander concentrated his main forces not in the center (“chele”), as Russian troops always did, but on the flanks. In front was an advanced regiment of light cavalry, archers and slingers. The Russian battle formation was turned with its rear to the steep, steep eastern shore of the lake, and the princely cavalry squad hid in ambush behind the left flank. The chosen position was advantageous in that the Germans, advancing along open ice, were deprived of the opportunity to determine the location, number and composition of the Russian army.
Putting out long spears and breaking through the archers and the advanced regiment, the Germans attacked the center ("brow") of the Russian battle formation. The center of the Russian troops was cut, and some of the soldiers retreated back to the flanks. However, having stumbled upon the steep shore of the lake, the sedentary, armor-clad knights could not develop their success. On the contrary, the knightly cavalry was crowded together, since the rear ranks of knights pushed the front ranks, which had nowhere to turn around for battle.
The flanks of the Russian battle formation ("wings") did not allow the Germans to develop the success of the operation. The German wedge was caught in pincers. At this time, Alexander’s squad struck from the rear and completed the encirclement of the enemy. Several ranks of knights covering the wedge from the rear were crushed by the blow of the Russian heavy cavalry.
Warriors who had special spears with hooks pulled the knights off their horses; warriors armed special knives, disabled the horses, after which the knight became easy prey. And as it is written in “The Life of Alexander Nevsky,” “and there was a swift slashing of evil, and a cracking sound from the breaking spears, and a sound from the cutting of a sword, as if a frozen lake were moving. And you couldn’t see the ice: it was covered with blood.”
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Chud, who made up the bulk of the infantry, seeing his army surrounded, ran to his native shore. Some knights, together with the master, managed to break through the encirclement and tried to escape. The Russians pursued the fleeing enemy 7 miles to the opposite shore of Lake Peipsi. Already near the western shore, those running began to fall through the ice, since the ice is always thinner near the coast. The pursuit of the remnants of a defeated enemy outside the battlefield was a new phenomenon in the development of Russian military art. The Novgorodians did not celebrate the victory "on the bones", as was customary before.
The German knights suffered a complete defeat. The issue of the parties' losses is still controversial. The Russian losses are spoken of vaguely - “many brave warriors fell.” In Russian chronicles it is written that 500 knights were killed, and there were countless miracles; 50 noble knights were taken prisoner. Much fewer knights took part in the entire First Crusade. In German chronicles the figures are much more modest. Recent research suggests that about 400 German soldiers actually fell on the ice of Lake Peipsi, 20 of them were brother knights, 90 Germans (of which 6 “real” knights) were captured.
In the summer of 1242, the Order concluded a peace treaty with Novgorod, returning all the lands it had seized from it. Prisoners on both sides were exchanged.
The “Battle of the Ice” was the first time in the history of military art when heavy knightly cavalry was defeated in a field battle by an army consisting mostly of infantry. The new battle formation of the Russian troops, invented by Alexander Nevsky, turned out to be flexible, as a result of which it was possible to encircle the enemy, whose battle formation was a sedentary mass. The infantry successfully interacted with the cavalry.
The death of so many professional warriors greatly undermined the power of the Livonian Order in the Baltic states. The victory over the German army on the ice of Lake Peipsi saved the Russian people from German enslavement and was of great political and military-strategic significance, delaying the further German offensive in the East for almost several centuries, which was the main line of German policy from 1201 to 1241. This is the enormous historical significance of the Russian victory on April 5, 1242.
References.
1. Life of Alexander Nevsky.
2. 100 great battles/res. ed. A. Agrashenkov and others - Moscow, 2000.
3. The World History. Crusaders and Mongols. - Volume 8 - Minsk, 2000.
4. Venkov A.V., Derkach S.V. Great commanders and their battles. - Rostov-on-Don, 1999
Battle on the Ice, artist V.A. Serov (1865-19110
When did the event take place? : April 5, 1242
Where did the event take place? : Lake Peipsi (near Pskov)
Participants:
The army of the Novgorod Republic and the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality under the leadership of Alexander Nevsky and Andrei Yaroslavich
Livonian Order, Denmark. Commander - Andres von Velven
Causes
Livonian Order:
Capture of Russian territories in the northwest
Spread of Catholicism
Russian troops:
Defense of the northwestern borders from German knights
Prevention of subsequent threats of attack on Rus' by the Livonian Order
Defending access to the Baltic Sea, trade opportunities with Europe
Defense of the Orthodox Faith
Move
In 1240, Livonian knights captured Pskov and Koporye
In 1241, Alexander Nevsky recaptured Koporye.
At the beginning of 1242, Nevsky and his brother Andrei Yaroslavich of Suzdal took Pskov.
The knights were lined up in a battle wedge: heavy knights on the flanks, and light knights in the center. In Russian chronicles, this formation was called the “great pig.”
First, the knights attacked the center of the Russian troops, thinking to surround them from the flanks. However, they themselves found themselves caught in pincers. Moreover, Alexander brought in an ambush regiment.
The knights began to be pushed towards the lake, where the ice was no longer strong. Most of the knights drowned. Only a few managed to escape.
Results
The threat of capture of the northwestern lands has been eliminated
Trade ties with Europe were preserved, Rus' defended access to the Baltic Sea.
According to the agreement, the knights left all conquered lands and returned prisoners. The Russians also returned all the prisoners.
Western raids on Rus' ceased for a long time.
Meaning
The defeat of the German knights is a bright page in the history of Rus'.
For the first time, Russian foot soldiers were able to defeat heavily armed cavalry.
The significance of the battle is also great in the sense that the victory took place during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. In case of defeat, it would be much more difficult for Rus' to get rid of double oppression.
The Orthodox faith was protected, since the crusaders wanted to actively introduce Catholicism in Rus'. But it was Orthodoxy during the period of fragmentation and yoke that was the connecting link that united the people in the fight against the enemy.
During the Battle of the Ice and the Battle of the Neva, the military leadership talent of the young Alexander Nevsky was revealed. He used proven tactics:
Before the battle, he inflicted a number of successive blows on the enemy, and only then did the decisive battle take place.
used the surprise factor
successfully and on time introduced an ambush regiment into battle
the disposition of the Russian troops was more flexible than the clumsy “pig” of the knights.
Prince of Novgorod (1236-1240, 1241-1252 and 1257-1259), and later the Grand Duke of Kiev (1249-1263), and then Vladimir (1252-1263), Alexander Yaroslavich, known in our historical memory as Alexander Nevsky, - one of the most popular heroes in the history of Ancient Rus'. Only Dmitry Donskoy and Ivan the Terrible can compete with him. A big role in this was played by Sergei Eisenstein’s brilliant film “Alexander Nevsky”, which turned out to be in tune with the events of the 40s of the last century, and in Lately also the “Name of Russia” competition, in which the prince won a posthumous victory over other heroes of Russian history.
The glorification of Alexander Yaroslavich by the Russian Orthodox Church as a noble prince is also important. Meanwhile, the nationwide veneration of Alexander Nevsky as a hero began only after the Great Patriotic War. Before that, even professional historians paid much less attention to him. For example, in pre-revolutionary general courses on Russian history, the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice are often not mentioned at all.
Nowadays, a critical and even neutral attitude towards a hero and a saint is perceived by many in society (both in professional circles and among history buffs) as very painful. However, active debate continues among historians. The situation is complicated not only by the subjectivity of each scientist’s view, but also by the extreme complexity of working with medieval sources.
All information in them can be divided into repetitive (quotes and paraphrases), unique and verifiable. Accordingly, you need to trust these three types of information varying degrees. Among other things, the period from approximately the middle of the 13th to the middle of the 14th century is sometimes called “dark” by professionals precisely because of the scarcity of the source base.
In this article we will try to consider how historians evaluate the events associated with Alexander Nevsky, and what, in their opinion, is his role in history. Without delving too deeply into the arguments of the parties, we will nevertheless present the main conclusions. Here and there, for convenience, we will divide part of our text about each major event into two sections: “for” and “against”. In reality, of course, there is a much greater range of opinions on each specific issue.
Battle of Neva
The Battle of the Neva took place on July 15, 1240 at the mouth of the Neva River between the Swedish landing force (the Swedish detachment also included a small group of Norwegians and warriors of the Finnish tribe Em) and the Novgorod-Ladoga squad in alliance with the local Izhora tribe. Estimates of this collision, like the Battle of the Ice, depend on the interpretation of the data from the First Novgorod Chronicle and the “Life of Alexander Nevsky”. Many researchers treat information in life with great distrust. Scientists also differ on the question of the dating of this work, on which the reconstruction of events greatly depends.
Behind
The Battle of the Neva is a fairly large battle that was of great importance. Some historians even talked about an attempt to blockade Novgorod economically and close access to the Baltic. The Swedes were led by the son-in-law of the Swedish king, the future Earl Birger and/or his cousin Earl Ulf Fasi. The sudden and quick attack of the Novgorod squad and Izhora warriors on the Swedish detachment prevented the creation of a stronghold on the banks of the Neva, and, possibly, a subsequent attack on Ladoga and Novgorod. This was a turning point in the fight against the Swedes.
6 Novgorod warriors distinguished themselves in the battle, whose exploits are described in the “Life of Alexander Nevsky” (there are even attempts to connect these heroes with specific people known from other Russian sources). During the battle, the young Prince Alexander “put a seal on his face,” that is, he wounded the Swedish commander in the face. For his victory in this battle, Alexander Yaroslavich subsequently received the nickname “Nevsky”.
Against
The scale and significance of this battle are clearly exaggerated. There was no talk of any kind of blockade. The skirmish was clearly minor, since, according to sources, 20 or less people died in it on the Russian side. True, we can only talk about noble warriors, but this hypothetical assumption is unprovable. Swedish sources do not mention the Battle of the Neva at all.
It is characteristic that the first large Swedish chronicle - “Eric's Chronicle”, which was written much later than these events, mentioning many Swedish-Novgorod conflicts, in particular the destruction of the Swedish capital of Sigtuna in 1187 by Karelians incited by the Novgorodians, is silent about this event.
Naturally, there was no talk of an attack on Ladoga or Novgorod either. It is impossible to say exactly who led the Swedes, but Magnus Birger, apparently, was in a different place during this battle. It is difficult to call the actions of Russian soldiers fast. The exact location of the battle is unknown, but it was located on the territory of modern St. Petersburg, and from it to Novgorod it is 200 km in a straight line, and it takes longer to walk over rough terrain. But it was still necessary to gather the Novgorod squad and connect somewhere with the Ladoga residents. This would take at least a month.
It is strange that the Swedish camp was poorly fortified. Most likely, the Swedes were not going to go deeper into the territory, but to baptize the local population, for which they had clergymen with them. This determines the great attention paid to the description of this battle in The Life of Alexander Nevsky. The story about the Battle of the Neva in the life is twice as long as about the Battle of the Ice.
For the author of the life, whose task is not to describe the deeds of the prince, but to show his piety, we are talking, first of all, not about military, but about spiritual victory. It is hardly possible to talk about this clash as a turning point if the struggle between Novgorod and Sweden continued for a very long time.
In 1256, the Swedes again tried to strengthen themselves on the coast. In 1300 they managed to build the Landskrona fortress on the Neva, but a year later they abandoned it due to constant enemy raids and the difficult climate. The confrontation took place not only on the banks of the Neva, but also on the territory of Finland and Karelia. Suffice it to recall the Finnish winter campaign of Alexander Yaroslavich in 1256-1257. and campaigns against the Finns by Earl Birger. Thus, at best, we can talk about stabilizing the situation for several years.
The description of the battle as a whole in the chronicle and in the “Life of Alexander Nevsky” should not be taken literally, since it is full of quotations from other texts: “The Jewish War” by Josephus, “The Acts of Eugenius”, “Trojan Tales”, etc. As for the duel between Prince Alexander and the leader of the Swedes, almost the same episode with a wound to the face appears in “The Life of Prince Dovmont,” so this plot is most likely transferable.
Some scientists believe that the life of the Pskov prince Dovmont was written earlier than the life of Alexander and, accordingly, the borrowing came from there. Alexander’s role is also unclear in the scene of the death of part of the Swedes on the other side of the river - where the prince’s squad was “impassable.”
Perhaps the enemy was destroyed by Izhora. The sources speak of the death of the Swedes from the angels of the Lord, which is very reminiscent of an episode from the Old Testament (the 19th chapter of the Fourth Book of Kings) about the destruction by an angel of the Assyrian army of King Sennacherib.
The name “Nevsky” appears only in the 15th century. More importantly, there is a text in which the two sons of Prince Alexander are also called “Nevsky”. Perhaps these were proprietary nicknames, meaning the family owned land in the area. In sources close in time to the events, Prince Alexander bears the nickname “Brave”.
Russian-Livonian conflict 1240 - 1242 and Battle on the Ice
The famous battle, known to us as the “Battle of the Ice,” took place in 1242. In it, troops under the command of Alexander Nevsky and German knights with their subordinate Estonians (Chud) met on the ice of Lake Peipus. There are more sources for this battle than for the Battle of the Neva: several Russian chronicles, “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” and the “Livonian Rhymed Chronicle,” reflecting the position of the Teutonic Order.
Behind
In the 40s of the 13th century, the papacy organized a crusade to the Baltic states, in which Sweden (Battle of the Neva), Denmark and the Teutonic Order took part. During this campaign in 1240, the Germans captured the Izborsk fortress, and then on September 16, 1240, the Pskov army was defeated there. According to the chronicles, between 600 and 800 people died. Next, Pskov was besieged, which soon capitulated.
As a result, the Pskov political group led by Tverdila Ivankovich submits to the Order. The Germans rebuild the Koporye fortress and raid the Vodskaya land, controlled by Novgorod. The Novgorod boyars ask the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich to return to their reign the young Alexander Yaroslavich, expelled by “lesser people” for reasons unknown to us.
Prince Yaroslav first offers them his other son Andrei, but they prefer to return Alexander. In 1241, Alexander, apparently, with an army of Novgorodians, Ladoga residents, Izhorians and Karelians, conquered the Novgorod territories and took Koporye by storm. In March 1242, Alexander with a large army, including Suzdal regiments brought by his brother Andrei, expelled the Germans from Pskov. Then the fighting moves to enemy territory in Livonia.
The Germans defeat the advance detachment of Novgorodians under the command of Domash Tverdislavich and Kerbet. Alexander's main troops retreat to the ice of Lake Peipsi. There, on Uzmen, at the Raven Stone (the exact place is unknown to scientists, discussions are ongoing) on April 5, 1242, a battle takes place.
The number of Alexander Yaroslavich's troops is at least 10,000 people (3 regiments - Novgorod, Pskov and Suzdal). The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle says that there were fewer Germans than Russians. True, the text uses rhetorical hyperbole that there were 60 times fewer Germans.
Apparently, the Russians carried out an encirclement maneuver, and the Order was defeated. German sources report that 20 knights died and 6 were captured, and Russian sources tell of German losses of 400-500 people and 50 prisoners. Countless people died. The Battle of the Ice was a major battle that significantly influenced the political situation. In Soviet historiography it was even customary to talk about “the largest battle of the early Middle Ages.”
Against
The version of a general crusade is doubtful. The West at that time did not have sufficient forces or a general strategy, which is confirmed by the significant difference in time between the actions of the Swedes and the Germans. In addition, the territory, which historians conventionally call the Livonian Confederation, was not united. Here were the lands of the archbishoprics of Riga and Dorpat, the possessions of the Danes and the Order of the Sword (since 1237, the Livonian Landmaster of the Teutonic Order). All these forces were in very complex, often conflicting relationships with each other.
The knights of the order, by the way, received only a third of the lands they conquered, and the rest went to the church. There were difficult relations within the order between the former swordsmen and the Teutonic knights who came to reinforce them. The policies of the Teutons and former Swordsmen in the Russian direction were different. Thus, having learned about the beginning of the war with the Russians, the head of the Teutonic Order in Prussia, Hanrik von Winda, dissatisfied with these actions, removed the Landmaster of Livonia, Andreas von Woelven, from power. The new Landmaster of Livonia, Dietrich von Gröningen, after the Battle of the Ice, made peace with the Russians, freeing all occupied lands and exchanging prisoners.
In such a situation, there could be no talk of any united “Onslaught on the East”. Clash 1240-1242 - this is the usual struggle for spheres of influence, which either intensified or subsided. Among other things, the conflict between Novgorod and the Germans is directly related to Pskov-Novgorod politics, first of all, with the history of the expulsion of the Pskov prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich, who found refuge with the Dorpat Bishop Herman and tried to regain the throne with his help.
The scale of the events appears to have been somewhat exaggerated by some modern scholars. Alexander acted carefully so as not to completely ruin relations with Livonia. So, having taken Koporye, he executed only the Estonians and the leaders, and released the Germans. Alexander's capture of Pskov is actually the expulsion of two knights of the Vogts (that is, judges) with their retinue (hardly more than 30 people), who were sitting there under an agreement with the Pskovites. By the way, some historians believe that this treaty was actually concluded against Novgorod.
In general, Pskov’s relations with the Germans were less conflictual than those of Novgorod. For example, Pskovites took part in the Battle of Siauliai against the Lithuanians in 1236 on the side of the Order of the Swordsmen. In addition, Pskov often suffered from German-Novgorod border conflicts, since German troops sent against Novgorod often did not reach Novgorod lands and plundered closer Pskov possessions.
The “Battle of the Ice” itself took place on the lands not of the Order, but of the Dorpat Archbishop, so most of the troops most likely consisted of his vassals. There is reason to believe that a significant part of the Order’s troops were simultaneously preparing for war with the Semigallians and Curonians. In addition, it is usually not customary to mention that Alexander sent his troops to “disperse” and “live”, that is, in modern language, to plunder the local population. The main method of conducting a medieval war was to inflict maximum economic damage on the enemy and capture booty. It was during the “dispersal” that the Germans defeated the advance detachment of the Russians.
Specific details of the battle are difficult to reconstruct. Many modern historians believe that the German army did not exceed 2,000 people. Some historians speak of only 35 knights and 500 foot soldiers. The Russian army may have been somewhat larger, but it was unlikely to be significant. The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle only reports that the Germans used a “pig”, that is, a wedge formation, and that the “pig” broke through the Russian formation, which had many archers. The knights fought bravely, but they were defeated, and some of the Dorpatians fled to save themselves.
As for losses, the only explanation why the data in the chronicles and the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle differ is the assumption that the Germans counted only losses among full-fledged knights of the Order, and the Russians counted the total losses of all Germans. Most likely, here, as in other medieval texts, reports about the number of dead are very conditional.
Even the exact date of the “Battle on the Ice” is unknown. The Novgorod Chronicle gives the date April 5, the Pskov Chronicle – April 1, 1242. And whether it was “ice” is unclear. In the “Livonian Rhymed Chronicle” there are the words: “On both sides the dead fell on the grass.” The political and military significance of the Battle of the Ice has also been exaggerated, especially in comparison with the larger battles of Siauliai (1236) and Rakovor (1268).
Alexander Nevsky and the Pope
One of the key episodes in the biography of Alexander Yaroslavich is his contacts with Pope Innocent IV. Information about this is in two bulls of Innocent IV and “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”. The first bull is dated January 22, 1248, the second – September 15, 1248.
Many believe that the fact of the prince’s contacts with the Roman Curia greatly harms his image as an irreconcilable defender of Orthodoxy. Therefore, some researchers even tried to find other recipients for the Pope's messages. They offered either Yaroslav Vladimirovich, an ally of the Germans in the 1240 war against Novgorod, or the Lithuanian Tovtivil, who reigned in Polotsk. However, most researchers consider these versions to be unfounded.
What was written in these two documents? In the first message, the Pope asked Alexander to notify him through the brothers of the Teutonic Order in Livonia about the offensive of the Tatars in order to prepare for resistance. In the second bull to Alexander “the most serene prince of Novgorod,” the Pope mentions that his addressee agreed to join the true faith and even allowed the construction of a cathedral in Pleskov, that is, in Pskov, and, perhaps, even the establishment of an episcopal see.
No reply letters have been preserved. But from the “Life of Alexander Nevsky” it is known that two cardinals came to the prince to persuade him to convert to Catholicism, but received a categorical refusal. However, apparently, for some time Alexander Yaroslavich maneuvered between the West and the Horde.
What influenced his final decision? It is impossible to answer precisely, but the explanation of the historian A. A. Gorsky seems interesting. The fact is that, most likely, the second letter from the Pope did not reach Alexander; at that moment he was on his way to Karakorum, the capital of the Mongol Empire. The prince spent two years on the trip (1247 - 1249) and saw the power of the Mongol state.
When he returned, he learned that Daniel of Galicia, who received the royal crown from the Pope, did not receive the promised help from the Catholics against the Mongols. In the same year, the Catholic Swedish ruler Jarl Birger began the conquest of Central Finland - the lands of the Em tribal union, which was previously part of the sphere of influence of Novgorod. And finally, the mention of the Catholic Cathedral in Pskov was supposed to evoke unpleasant memories of the conflict of 1240 - 1242.
Alexander Nevsky and the Horde
The most painful point in discussing the life of Alexander Nevsky is his relationship with the Horde. Alexander did travel to Sarai (1247, 1252, 1258 and 1262) and Karakorum (1247-1249). Some hotheads declare him almost a collaborator, a traitor to the fatherland and Motherland. But, firstly, such a formulation of the question is a clear anachronism, since such concepts did not even exist in the Old Russian language of the 13th century. Secondly, all the princes went to the Horde for labels to reign or for other reasons, even Daniil Galitsky, who offered direct resistance to it for the longest time.
The Horde people, as a rule, received them with honor, although the chronicle of Daniil Galitsky stipulates that “Tatar honor is worse than evil.” The princes had to observe certain rituals, walk through lit fires, drink kumiss, worship the image of Genghis Khan - that is, do things that desecrated a person according to the concepts of a Christian of that time. Most of the princes and, apparently, Alexander too, submitted to these demands.
Only one exception is known: Mikhail Vsevolodovich of Chernigov, who in 1246 refused to obey and was killed for it (canonized according to the rank of martyrs at the council of 1547). In general, events in Rus', starting from the 40s of the 13th century, cannot be considered in isolation from the political situation in the Horde.
One of the most dramatic episodes of Russian-Horde relations occurred in 1252. The course of events was as follows. Alexander Yaroslavich goes to Sarai, after which Batu sends an army led by commander Nevryuy (“Nevryuev’s army”) against Andrei Yaroslavich, Prince Vladimirsky - Alexander’s brother. Andrei flees from Vladimir to Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, where their younger brother Yaroslav Yaroslavich rules.
The princes manage to escape from the Tatars, but Yaroslav’s wife dies, the children are captured, and “countless” ordinary people are killed. After Nevryuy's departure, Alexander returns to Rus' and sits on the throne in Vladimir. There are still discussions about whether Alexander was involved in Nevruy’s campaign.
Behind
The English historian Fennell has the harshest assessment of these events: “Alexander betrayed his brothers.” Many historians believe that Alexander specifically went to the Horde to complain to the khan about Andrei, especially since similar cases are known from a later time. The complaints could be the following: Andrei, the younger brother, unfairly received the great reign of Vladimir, taking for himself his father’s cities, which should belong to the eldest of the brothers; he does not pay extra tribute.
The subtlety here was that Alexander Yaroslavich, being the great Prince of Kiev, formally had more power than the Grand Duke of Vladimir Andrei, but in fact Kiev, devastated in the 12th century by Andrei Bogolyubsky and then by the Mongols, had by that time lost its significance , and therefore Alexander sat in Novgorod. This distribution of power was consistent with the Mongol tradition, according to which the younger brother receives the father's property, and the older brothers conquer the lands for themselves. As a result, the conflict between the brothers was resolved in such a dramatic way.
Against
There are no direct references to Alexander’s complaint in the sources. The exception is Tatishchev’s text. But latest research showed that this historian did not use, as previously thought, unknown sources; he did not distinguish between the retelling of the chronicles and his comments. The statement of complaint appears to be the writer's commentary. Analogies with more late time- incomplete, since later the princes, who successfully complained to the Horde, themselves participated in punitive campaigns.
Historian A. A. Gorsky offers the following version of events. Apparently, Andrei Yaroslavich, relying on the label for the reign of Vladimir, received in 1249 in Karakorum from the khansha Ogul-Gamish, hostile to Sarai, tried to behave independently of Batu. But in 1251 the situation changed.
Khan Munke (Mengu) comes to power in Karakorum with the support of Batu. Apparently, Batu decides to redistribute power in Rus' and summons the princes to his capital. Alexander is going, but Andrey is not. Then Batu sends Nevryu’s army against Andrei and at the same time Kuremsa’s army against his rebellious father-in-law Daniil Galitsky. However, for a final resolution of this controversial issue, as usual, there are not enough sources.
In 1256-1257, a population census was carried out throughout the Great Mongol Empire in order to streamline taxation, but it was disrupted in Novgorod. By 1259, Alexander Nevsky suppressed the Novgorod uprising (for which some in this city still do not like him; for example, the outstanding historian and leader of the Novgorod archaeological expedition V.L. Yanin spoke very harshly about him). The prince ensured that the census was carried out and that the “exit” was paid (as tribute to the Horde is called in sources).
As we see, Alexander Yaroslavich was very loyal to the Horde, but then this was the policy of almost all princes. IN difficult situation it was necessary to make compromises with the irresistible power of the Great Mongol Empire, about which the papal legate Plano Carpini, who visited Karakorum, noted that only God could defeat them.
Canonization of Alexander Nevsky
Prince Alexander was canonized at the Moscow Council of 1547 among the faithful.
Why did he become revered as a saint? There are different opinions. So F.B. Schenk, who wrote a fundamental study on the changing image of Alexander Nevsky over time, states: “Alexander became the founding father of a special type of Orthodox holy princes who earned their position primarily through secular deeds for the good of the community...”.
Many researchers prioritize the prince’s military successes and believe that he was revered as a saint who defended the “Russian land.” Also interesting is the interpretation of I.N. Danilevsky: “Under the conditions of terrible trials that befell the Orthodox lands, Alexander was perhaps the only secular ruler who did not doubt his spiritual righteousness, did not waver in his faith, and did not renounce his God. Refusing joint actions with Catholics against the Horde, he unexpectedly becomes the last powerful stronghold of Orthodoxy, the last defender of the entire Orthodox world.
Could the Orthodox Church not recognize such a ruler as a saint? Apparently, this is why he was canonized not as a righteous man, but as a faithful (listen to this word!) prince. The victories of his direct heirs in the political field consolidated and developed this image. And the people understood and accepted this, forgiving the real Alexander for all the cruelties and injustices.”
And finally, there is the opinion of A.E. Musin, a researcher with two educations - historical and theological. He denies the importance of the prince’s “anti-Latin” policy, loyalty to the Orthodox faith and social activities in his canonization, and tries to understand what qualities of Alexander’s personality and features of life became the reason for his veneration by the people of medieval Rus'; it began much earlier than the official canonization.
It is known that by 1380 the veneration of the prince had already taken shape in Vladimir. The main thing that, according to the scientist, was appreciated by his contemporaries is “the combination of the courage of a Christian warrior and the sobriety of a Christian monk.” Another important factor was the very unusualness of his life and death. Alexander may have died of illness in 1230 or 1251, but he recovered. He was not supposed to become a Grand Duke, since he initially occupied second place in the family hierarchy, but his older brother Fedor died at the age of thirteen. Nevsky died strangely, having taken monastic vows before his death (this custom spread to Rus' in the 12th century).
In the Middle Ages they loved unusual people and passion-bearers. The sources describe miracles associated with Alexander Nevsky. The incorruptibility of his remains also played a role. Unfortunately, we don’t even know for sure whether the prince’s real relics have been preserved. The fact is that in the lists of the Nikon and Resurrection Chronicles of the 16th century it is said that the body burned down in a fire in 1491, and in the lists of the same chronicles for the 17th century it is written that it was miraculously preserved, which leads to sad suspicions.
The choice of Alexander Nevsky
Recently, the main merit of Alexander Nevsky is considered not to be the defense of the northwestern borders of Rus', but, so to speak, the conceptual choice between the West and the East in favor of the latter.
Behind
Many historians think so. The famous statement of the Eurasian historian G.V. Vernadsky from his journalistic article “Two Labors of St. Alexander Nevsky": "...with his deep and brilliant hereditary historical instinct, Alexander understood that in his historical era the main danger to Orthodoxy and the originality of Russian culture came from the West, and not from the East, from Latinism, and not from Mongolism."
Further, Vernadsky writes: “Alexander’s submission to the Horde cannot be assessed otherwise than as a feat of humility. When the times and deadlines were fulfilled, when Rus' gained strength, and the Horde, on the contrary, was crushed, weakened and weakened, and then Alexander’s policy of subordination to the Horde became unnecessary... then the policy of Alexander Nevsky naturally had to turn into the policy of Dmitry Donskoy.”
Against
Firstly, such an assessment of the motives of Nevsky’s activities - an assessment based on the consequences - suffers from the point of view of logic. He could not have foreseen the further development of events. In addition, as I. N. Danilevsky ironically noted, Alexander did not choose, but he was chosen (Batu chose), and the choice of the prince was “a choice for survival.”
In some places Danilevsky speaks out even more harshly, believing that Nevsky’s policy influenced the duration of Rus'’s dependence on the Horde (he refers to the successful struggle of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with the Horde) and, along with the earlier policy of Andrei Bogolyubsky, on the formation of the type of statehood of the North-Eastern Rus' as a “despotic monarchy”. Here it is worth citing a more neutral opinion of the historian A. A. Gorsky:
“In general, it can be stated that in the actions of Alexander Yaroslavich there is no reason to look for some kind of conscious fateful choice. He was a man of his era, acting in accordance with the worldview of the time and personal experience. Alexander was, in modern terms, a “pragmatist”: he chose the path that seemed more profitable to him for strengthening his land and for him personally. When it was a decisive battle, he fought; when an agreement with one of Rus'’s enemies seemed most useful, he agreed.”
"Favorite Childhood Hero"
This is what historian I.N. called one of the sections of a very critical article about Alexander Nevsky. Danilevsky. I confess that for the author of these lines, along with Richard I the Lionheart, he was a favorite hero. The “Battle on the Ice” was “reconstructed” in detail with the help of soldiers. So the author knows exactly how it all really happened. But if we speak coldly and seriously, then, as mentioned above, we do not have enough data for a holistic assessment of the personality of Alexander Nevsky.
As is most often the case in the study of early history, we more or less know that something happened, but often we do not know and will never know how. The author’s personal opinion is that the argumentation of the position, which we conventionally designated as “against,” looks more serious. Perhaps the exception is the episode with “Nevryuev’s Army” - nothing can be said for sure there. The final conclusion remains with the reader.
Soviet Order of Alexander Nevsky, established in 1942.
Bibliography
Lyrics
1. Alexander Nevsky and the history of Russia. Novgorod. 1996.
2. Bakhtin A.P. Internal and foreign policy problems of the Teutonic Order, in Prussia and Livonia in the late 1230s - early 1240s. Battle of the ice in the mirror of the era // Collection of scientific works dedicated to. 770th anniversary of the Battle of Lake Peipsi. Comp. M.B. Bessudnova. Lipetsk. 2013 pp. 166-181.
3. Begunov Yu.K. Alexander Nevskiy. The life and deeds of the holy noble Grand Duke. M., 2003.
4. Vernadsky G.V. Two labors of St. Alexander Nevsky // Eurasian temporary book. Book IV. Prague, 1925.
5. Gorsky A.A. Alexander Nevskiy.
6. Danilevsky I.N. Alexander Nevsky: Paradoxes of historical memory // "Chain of Times": Problems of historical consciousness. M.: IVI RAS, 2005, p. 119-132.
7. Danilevsky I.N. Historical reconstruction: between text and reality (thesis).
8. Danilevsky I.N. Battle on the Ice: change of image // Otechestvennye zapiski. 2004. - No. 5.
9. Danilevsky I.N. Alexander Nevsky and the Teutonic Order.
10. Danilevsky I.N. Russian lands through the eyes of contemporaries and descendants (XII-XIV centuries). M. 2001.
11. Danilevsky I.N. Modern Russian discussions about Prince Alexander Nevsky.
12. Egorov V.L. Alexander Nevsky and the Genghisids // Domestic history. 1997. No. 2.
13. Prince Alexander Nevsky and his era: Research and materials. St. Petersburg 1995.
14. Kuchkin A.V. Alexander Nevsky - statesman and commander of medieval Rus' // Domestic History. 1996. No. 5.
15. Matuzova E. I., Nazarova E. L. Crusaders and Rus'. End of XII - 1270. Texts, translation, commentary. M. 2002.
16. Musin A.E. Alexander Nevskiy. The mystery of holiness.// Almanac "Chelo", Veliky Novgorod. 2007. No. 1. P.11-25.
17. Rudakov V.N. “He worked hard for Novgorod and for the whole Russian land” Book review: Alexander Nevsky. Sovereign. Diplomat. Warrior. M. 2010.
18. Uzhankov A.N. Between two evils. Historical choice of Alexander Nevsky.
19. Fennel. D. The crisis of medieval Rus'. 1200-1304. M. 1989.
20. Florya B.N. At the origins of the confessional schism of the Slavic world ( Ancient Rus' and its western neighbors in the 13th century). In the book: From the history of Russian culture. T. 1. (Ancient Rus'). – M. 2000.
21. Khrustalev D.G. Rus' and the Mongol invasion (20-50s of the 13th century) St. Petersburg. 2013.
22. Khrustalev D.G. Northern Crusaders. Rus' in the struggle for spheres of influence in the Eastern Baltics in the 12th – 13th centuries. vol. 1, 2. St. Petersburg. 2009.
23. Schenk F. B. Alexander Nevsky in Russian cultural memory: Saint, ruler, national hero (1263–2000) / Authorized trans. with him. E. Zemskova and M. Lavrinovich. M. 2007.
24. Urban. W.L. The Baltic Crusade. 1994.
Video
1. Danilevsky I.G. Historical reconstruction between text and reality (lecture)
2. Hour of Truth - Golden Horde - Russian Choice (Igor Danilevsky and Vladimir Rudakov) 1st episode.
3. Hour of Truth - Horde Yoke - Versions (Igor Danilevsky and Vladimir Rudakov)
4. Hour of Truth - Frontiers of Alexander Nevsky. (Petr Stefanovich and Yuri Artamonov)
5. Battle on the ice. Historian Igor Danilevsky about the events of 1242, about Eisenstein’s film and the relationship between Pskov and Novgorod.
The battle, which took place on April 5, 1242 on the ice of Lake Peipus near the island of Voroniy Kamen, went down in history as one of the most important in the history of the state, as a battle that liberated the lands of Rus' from any claims of the Order of the Livonian Knights. Although the course of the battle is known, many controversial issues remain. Thus, there is no exact information about the number of soldiers who took part in the Battle of Lake Peipsi. Neither in the chronicles that have reached us, nor in the “Life of Alexander Nevsky” are these data given. Presumably, from the Novgorodians, from 12 thousand to 15 thousand soldiers took part in the battle. The number of the enemy ranged from 10 thousand to 12 thousand. At the same time, there were few knights among the German soldiers, the bulk of the army were militias, litas and Estonians.
Alexander's choice of the battle site was dictated by both tactical and strategic calculations. The position occupied by the prince's troops made it possible to block all approaches to Novgorod for the attackers. Surely the prince also remembered that winter conditions give certain advantages in confrontation with heavy knights. Let's look at how the Battle of the Ice took place (briefly).
If the battle formation of the crusaders is well known to historians and is called a wedge, or, according to the chronicles, a “great pig” (heavy knights are on the flanks, and more lightly armed warriors are inside the wedge), then there is no exact information about the construction and location of the Novgorod army. It is quite possible that this was a traditional “regimental row”. The knights, who had no information about the number and location of Nevsky’s troops, decided to advance on open ice.
Although the chronicles do not provide a detailed description of the battle on Lake Peipsi, it is quite possible to reconstruct the scheme of the Battle of the Ice. The wedge of knights crashed into the center of the Nevsky guard regiment and broke through its defenses, rushing further. Perhaps this “success” was foreseen in advance by Prince Alexander, since the attackers then encountered a lot of insurmountable obstacles. The knight's wedge, squeezed in pincers, lost its orderly ranks and maneuverability, which turned out to be a serious negative factor for the attackers. The attack of the ambush regiment, which had not participated in the battle until that moment, finally tipped the scales in favor of the Novgorodians. The knights dismounted from their horses in their heavy armor on the ice and became practically helpless. Only part of the attackers managed to escape, whom the Russian warriors pursued, according to the chronicler, “to the Falcon Coast.”
After the victory of the Russian prince in the Battle of the Ice on Lake Peipsi, the Livonian Order was forced to make peace, completely renouncing its claims to the lands of Rus'. According to the agreement, both sides returned the soldiers captured during the battle.
It is worth noting that on the ice of Lake Peipsi, for the first time in the history of wars, a foot army defeated heavy cavalry, which was a formidable force in the Middle Ages. Alexander Yaroslavich, who brilliantly won the Battle of the Ice, made maximum use of the surprise factor and took into account the terrain.
The military-political significance of Alexander’s victory is difficult to overestimate. The prince not only defended the opportunity for the Novgorodians to conduct further trade with European countries and reach the Baltic, but also protected the north-west of Rus', because in the event of the defeat of Novgorod, the threat of the Order capturing the north-west of Rus' would become quite real. In addition, the prince delayed the German onslaught on Eastern European territories. April 5, 1242 is one of the most important dates in the history of Rus'.
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